Equity, Diversity, and Retention: Using concepts of equity to achieve diversity by increasing the retention of women and underrepresented minorities in the science and engineering pipeline

By Beatriz Chu Clewel¹, The Urban Institute

Overview of the Issue

The definition of equity has changed significantly over the years. In the recent past, equity was often taken to mean equity of access. That is, it was widely acknowledged by proponents of equity that individuals of different subgroups (determined by race/ethnicity, sex, social class, and socioeconomic, language minority and disability status, to name a few) should have equal access to the resources, opportunities, and experiences that would equip them to achieve equally with the dominant group(s) (usually comprised of individuals who were White, male, middle class, middle and higher income, English dominant, and abled ). This perception of equity as equality of access has in recent years been replaced by a view of equity as equality of outcomes. This means that in an equitable world individuals' sex and race/ethnicity (or other demographic characteristics) do not predict their success or achievement.

Using this definition, the goal of achieving equity in S&E participation and representation becomes "parity with respect to population distribution in enrollment, academic performance,… graduation rates [and employment]of all groups in every phase of the pipeline" (CAWMSET, p. 4). This standard for equity was adopted by the bipartisan Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science, Engineering and Technology Development (CAWMSET) in its report to Congress, the National Governor's Association and the President in September of 2000. Several states, such as Texas, for the past few years have held school districts and schools accountable for the student achievement outcomes of each racial/ethnic subgroup. Most recently, the Leave No Child Behind Act of 2001 adheres to this definition of equity by requiring states to report student achievement by race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, disability status, and English proficiency.

Although we know that women and some minority groups ARE underrepresented in S&E, what do we know about the degree of their underrepresentation and the main reasons for this underrepresentation? Because the status of these groups has been changing rapidly it is important to monitor their progress towards achieving equal representation in S&E; to identify the phases along the math/science pipeline where the greatest attrition occurs; to summarize the body of knowledge that explains underrepresentation; and to identify gaps that exist in that knowledge base.

Current State of the Research on Women and Underrepresented Minorities in Science and Engineering

The following is a brief summary of what we know concerning the status of women and underrepresented minorities in S&E, the main factors that affect their attrition from the S&E pipeline, and the state of the research on these factors.

Women

At the precollege level women are now taking higher-level courses in mathematics and science at similar levels to men, although women lag in the taking of some AP exams. Some small differences remain between male and female scores on the NAEP tests and college entrance exams. Women, nevertheless, are in a position to enter S&E college majors at the same rate as men (Clewell & Campbell, in press).

At the postsecondary level, however, women choose S&E majors at less than half the rate of men and the gender enrollment gap in S&E has remained relatively stable since 1989 (U.S. Dept. of Education, 2000). Sex differences are even more striking in certain fields—engineering, physics and computer science—though not present in biological and agricultural fields. Women who do choose a S&E major are somewhat more likely than their male classmates to complete a B.S. in S&E. At the graduate level, women are still acutely underrepresented in several fields, most strikingly the physical sciences, engineering, computer science and mathematics/applied mathematics (NSF, in press). Woman have fewer expectations of earning a doctoral degree in S&E and this is reflected in their low representation among S&E doctoral candidates (NSF, in press). Once they enroll in a graduate program, however, women are as likely as men to complete the degree. The proportion of women in the S&E workforce has remained relatively stagnant in recent years and has even declined in occupations such as computer sciences and mathematics in spite of women's dramatically increased presence in the general labor force. Lower salaries, more family responsibilities, inequitable distribution of career rewards, and problems in accommodating dual careers are negative factors associated with women's employment in S&E occupations.

Research on the barriers to women's participation in S&E fields can be grouped into: testing-based research, biologically-based research, social-psychological research, and cognitively-based research. This research base has led to the development of multiple interventions to address the identified barriers (Clewell & Campbell, in press; Rosser, 1997). Although the impact of these interventions on girls' and women's retention in the S&E pipeline has rarely been documented quantitatively, the narrowing of the performance and coursetaking gaps between girls and boys suggests that interventions have been successful in getting girls to the point where they have the requisite academic skills to embark upon an S&E career. They have not been sufficient to encourage girls to become scientists or engineers or to enter fields such as physics and computer science. A gap in the knowledge base, therefore, represents the factors that inhibit women from choosing S&E majors and careers, especially in certain fields.

Underrepresented Minorities

The story for underrepresented minorities—African Americans, Hispanics/ Latinos and American Indians—is much different. Although higher-level coursetaking in math and science has been increasing among these groups, they are still far behind their white and Asian counterparts in both advanced level coursetaking and scores on math and science standardized tests. In fact, few of these students graduate from high school with the knowledge and skills necessary to major in S&E (Campbell & Hoey, 1999). We know that underrepresented minority students have much less access to high quality education in math and science. For example, they are less likely to be in college prep and advanced placement programs (Huang, Taddese, and Walter, 2000 in Campbell et al., 2002) and schools with large minority enrollments are less likely to offer advanced level courses in math and science or to have teachers certified in these subjects teaching math and science (CAWMSET, 2000). Nevertheless, we know that the strongest precollege predictor of college completion is a high school curriculum of high academic intensity and quality; this is especially true for African American and Hispanic students (Adelman, 1999).

Surprisingly, underrepresented minorities in 4-year colleges enroll in S&E majors at rates similar to those of white students, with Asian students having a higher rate of enrollment than any of the other groups. The gender gap in enrollment is much wider than the racial/ethnic gap. There are also few racial/ethnic differences in terms of majors, except for Asians, who tend to choose computer science, biological sciences and engineering at a greater rate than other groups (NSF, in press). It is a different story, however, when we consider overall pipeline outcomes. Asian and white S&E students were much more likely to complete an S&E baccalaureate degree five years after enrollment than their underrepresented minority counterparts and much less likely to switch out of an S&E major (U.S. Department of Education, 2000). At the graduate level, except for Asians, participation rates following attainment of a bachelor's degree in S&E are comparable; Asians have much higher rates of enrollment in graduate programs. Asians are also more likely than other groups to major in engineering and computer science, whereas African Americans, Hispanics, and American Indians are more likely than whites and Asians to major in the social sciences. In considering attainment of a doctoral degree in an S&E field, whites and Asians are overrepresented and African Americans, Hispanics and American Indians are underrepresented in terms of their presence in the U.S. population (NSF, in press). Nonwhite scientists and engineers who are in the labor force (i.e., either employed or seeking employment) are more likely to be unemployed than their white colleagues. Median salaries for minority scientists and engineers lag behind those of their white colleagues (NSF, in press).

Obviously, the lack of achievement and higher level coursetaking on the part of underrepresented minorities pose the biggest threat to their persistence in the math/science pipeline. A large body of research documenting factors that have contributed to the achievement gap appeared between the late 1970s and 1990 (Jencks & Phillips, 1998). Of particular interest are school and classroom factors such as class size, ability grouping, instructional strategies, teacher behavior and qualifications, access to resources, cultural congruence in instruction, and parental involvement in education because these can be affected by policy or practice. There remain, nonetheless, a number of gaps in our knowledge base of factors that affect minority student performance in science and mathematics at both the precollege and postsecondary levels.

Summary of Discussion: Gaps in Research and Knowledge Base

From a list of five questions (see appendix for list of questions) provided ahead of time as suggestions for discussion, our group of 12 participants chose two questions because we felt that these were all we could cover adequately within the time allotted. The questions were:

• Given the changes in women's status in the past ten years, what research should be undertaken to identify factors that affect the most persistent barriers to women's equal representation in S&E (i.e., failure to choose S&E majors in college and failure to enter certain S&E fields)?
• What are the most important gaps in our knowledge about the minority-white achievement gap?

Highlights from the discussion on factors affecting the barriers to women's equal representation:²

There is a need to examine how science is changing (conceptually, sociologically, and historically) and what the implications are for the teaching and doing of science. Will science become feminized-and what does that mean? There is a difference between looking at women and science and women in science. The more that women go into a particular field, the more likely the field itself will change. A lot of emphasis in the current research is based on looking at women in science and trying to make women fit into a static structure that is science. There is a need to reorganize the system to be more empathetic to the needs of women (and minorities). A different way of looking at the issue is to look at women and science, whereby the "problem" of women's underrepresentation becomes a problem of the current science and engineering system.

The relatively new field of bioengineering seems to be attracting women. A similar phenomenon occurred several years ago with the IT field which in its infancy attracted large numbers of women. Once IT began to grow as a field in terms of prestige and monetary rewards, women (and minorities) began to be outnumbered by White males. Will a similar happening occur with bioengineering, which has the potential to become an extremely popular field? Perhaps the "nerdy" image of IT as well as the reputation it has for requiring long and impossible working hours may have driven women away. Women's predominance in IT happened before the development of the IT culture and persona.

Research suggestions:

• Examine the spikes in science disciplines where women's participation has increased in order to understand factors that contribute to increased participation.
• Look at differences in women's participation among fields and within a field look at differential patterns of participation by gender.
• Look at gender differences by racial/ethnic group (and social class) as well.

Existing research on women in the workplace tends not to be national in scope. NSF has large national databases that could be, but are rarely used to conduct such studies.

Research Suggestion:

• Conduct more studies using national databases about what happens to women scientists and engineers after they complete their education and after they enter the workplace.

Does the same process (of attraction to science and math) operate for all? For example, valuing math (and science) leads to taking math (and science) coursework and pursuing a math/science-related career. What are the messages that young girls receive that make them see science/math as less useful over time? We need to pay attention to common school-based or out of school practices that should change, such as intensely competitive science fairs and other activities that appeal to boys rather than girls. Such activities need to be structured so that they are more empathetic to the needs of girls and provide a broader culture of understanding science and its impacts/benefits.

Research Suggestions:

• Undertake research studies to asses gender differences in the way students are attracted to math and science and studies of how in-school and out-of-school practices/activities can be structured to attract girls to math/science.
• Perform a close analysis of the "messages" girls get in classrooms at all levels of education.

Highlights from the discussion on research needed on the achievement gap (the discussion, in the interest of time, focused largely on the role of high-quality teachers in reducing the gap):

There is a need to re-examine the lens for viewing the world. We live in a multicultural society and we need a multicultural perspective when considering these issues.

Assessment tools and analyses used to measure achievement are critical to understanding the achievement gap. The research community has been reactive in the dialogue about the gap.

Research suggestions:

• Develop alternative measures of achievement that can be widely accepted.
• Study the role of high stakes testing in influencing instruction and, thus, achievement.

We are confronted with the continuing challenge of how to make connections from research findings to classroom implementation. There are several areas to be explored and questions to be asked concerning teachers: teacher quality, state certification requirements, teacher preparation for math/science instruction. Teachers are dealing simultaneously with a complexity of issues: how to reach diverse learners, how to fill in the learning gaps, how to custom fit instruction to students needs, etc.

Research Suggestions:

Design research to answer the following questions:

• What has been the impact of using subject matter experts (without pedagogical training) versus traditionally trained teachers to fill teaching shortages?
• How has the influence of education reform transformed classroom practice?
• How do teachers obtain first-hand knowledge about working with different student populations in order to be effective and responsive to issues of culture, learning style, and subject matter content.
• What are effective professional development and preservice education programs to prepare teachers to work successfully with diverse groups of students?

Consider how to change the environment to increase participation. There must be an alignment among the following: I am interested in science; I know different forms of science; and I can do science. There must be a connection between personal identity and science. Also, we need to rethink how we treat underprepared students. How do we communicate to these students and how do we best support them? When will we get to the point when student support activities will no longer be needed because institutions are providing equal access to high quality education resulting in equitable outcomes?

Research Suggestions:

There is a need to examine school and societal relationships from the students' perspectives, particularly students who are not seeing hope in education or value attributed to their cultures. What are the implications of these relationships for understanding school, society and science?

Studies of alignment of cultural capital (what students bring to school) and the enacted curriculum/assessed curriculum should be undertaken.

References

Adelman, C. (1999). Answers in the toolbox: Academic intensity, attendance patterns, and bachelor degree attainment. Jessup, MD: Education Publication Center.

Campbell, P.B. and Hoey, L. (1999). Saving babies and the future of SMET in America. Washington, D.C.: United States Congress' Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science, Engineering, and Technology Development.

Campbell, P.B., Jolly, E., Hoey, L., and Perlman, L.K. (2002). Upping the numbers: Using research-based decision making to increase diversity in the quantitative sciences. Newton, MA: Education Development Center. www.edc.org.

Clewell, B.C. and Campbell, P.B. (In press). Taking stock: Where we've been, where we are, where we're going. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 8, 3/4.

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science, Engineering and Technology Development (CAWMSET). (September 2000). Land of plenty: Diversity as America's competitive edge in science, engineering, and technology. Report of the Commission. Washington, D.C.: Author

Jencks, C. and Phillips, M. (Eds.) (1998). The Black-White Test Score Gap. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

National Science Foundation. (In press.) Women, minorities, and persons with disabilities in science and engineering. Arlington, VA: Author.

Rosser, S. V. (1997). Reinventing female friendly science. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. Entry and persistence of women and minorities in college science and engineering education. NCES 2000-601, by Gary Huang, Nebiyu Taddese, and Elizabeth Walter. Project Officer, Samuel S. Peng. Washington, D.C.: Author.

Appendix

Questions for Discussion : Gaps in the Knowledge Base

1. Given the changes in women's status in the past ten years, what research should be undertaken to identify factors that affect the most persistent barriers to women's equal representation in S&E (i.e., failure to choose S&E majors in college and failure to enter certain S&E fields?)
2. How do the factors that affect the equal representation of women of color in S&E differ from those that affect white women?
3. Have math and science reform efforts improved the achievement of women and underrepresented minorities? What do we know about this?
4. What are the most important gaps in our knowledge about the minority-white achievement gap?
5. What are the major sources of data that help us monitor the status of women and underrepresented minorities in S&E? What changes in the data collection and presentation are needed to provide better information on the status of these groups?

¹The author would like to thank Bernice Anderson for her excellent notes of the discussion and her review of the paper as well as the participants in the session for their thoughtful remarks during the session and their subsequent review of the final paper.
² Rather than representing direct quotes, these remarks paraphrase and summarize the comments of participants.